The force for Canea and Suda Bay

For the 20 May 1941 attack, the situation went badly for the force to attack Canea and Suda Bay. The division commander and his staff were in five gliders. One crashed on a Greek island near Athens and General Sussman and the others in his glider were killed. That left Colonel Heidrich, the 3rd Regiment commander, in charge of the division. One battalion of the 3rd Regiment landed near the prison, captured a commanding position overlooking the prison, and advanced to the east. They met a company from one of the other battalions. They were stopped by the "Royal Perivolians" and Greeks. Near galatas, another company of the third battalion of the 3rd Regiment took almost total losses. When Colonel Heidrich landed at 9am, near the prison, he took charge of organizing the forces nearby to make progress. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

The West Group attack on 20 May 1941

Glider-borne troops were a key part of the West Group attack in Crete on 20 May 1941. The gliders were able to land where they were intended. They had three initial assignments: capture the camp near the airfield, capture the anti-aircraft guns "at the mouth of the Tavronitis", and also capture the bridge. The bridge was across the river, where the anti-aircraft guns were positioned. The III Battalion, which was to capture the airfield, was landed in the wrong place. They landed in the hills instead, as the aircraft commanders did not want to risk landing the men in the sea. Because of this, 400 of the 600 men were killed. The IV Battalion was planned to land west of the bridge. General Meindl landed with the IV Battalion and organized the attack on the airfield. The General had planned and executed an attack on the bridge, but was soon wounded. A major then took command of the leading troops. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

The German force deployment for Crete

The German troops attacking Crete were divided into three groups. General Meindl commanded the West Group. The West Group had the entire Assault Regiment, except for a half-battalion, a mixed light anti-aircraft and machine gun battalion, along with a medical platoon. The West Group was intended to capture the airfield at Maleme and hold it so that transport aircraft could operate from the field. The West Group had other missions, as well. They were to conduct a reconnaissance to the west and to push to the south and east to join with the Center Group. General Sussman commanded the Center Group. General Sussman was commanding officer of the 7th Air Division. Center Group had the 3rd Parachute Regiment, the half-battalion of glider-borne troops from teh Assault Regiment, and the engineer battalion (pioneers). The Center Group was to capture Canea and Suda. Center Group also had most of the 2nd Parachute Regiment, except for one battalion. The 2nd Parachute Regiment was to capture Retimo. Once capturing Retimo, they were to head west to attack Suda Bay. The East Group consisted of four battalions of paratroops. They were to capture the airfield at Heraklion and the town. They were also to aid bringing in troops by sea. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

More about the original attack plan for Crete in 1941

The original German attack plan for Crete for May 1941 was that the 7th Air Division and the 1st Assault Regiment would be dropped on Crete. After the airfields were taken, some of the mountain troops would be flown in by transport aircraft (Ju-52). The rest would be brought by sea, probably carried by Greek caiques. There were 750 glider borne troops in the assault regiment and 10,000 paratroops. Some 5,000 mountain troops would be flown in to the captured airfields. The other 7,000 mountain troops would come by sea. They had enough planes to fly in 70 or 80 gliders and somewhere between 600 and 750 Ju-52 transport aircraft. In one lift, they could bring 5,000 t0 6,000 troops with their equipment. The VIII Air Corps would provide air support to the attack. They would start the operation with 430 dive bombers. There were only 180 fighter aircraft with which to establish control of the air. They were helped by the extreme scarcity of British fighter aircraft. The Germans also had 40 reconnaissance aircraft for the operation. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

General Lohr

When you realize that General Lohr was an Austrian, we can realize that he was an old Balkan hand. He had fought in the Great War, in the Austrian-Hungarian army. Postwar, he became involved with the Austrian air force, a very small organization. Before Austria was annexed into Germany, General Lohr was head of the Austrian air force. The second letter in his name actually was an O with an umlaut over it. General Lohr concocted the scheme to capture the bridge over the Corinth canal and successfully executed the operation. The operation was conducted without the knowledge of General Student, the head of the German airborne forces. General Lohr was the head of the operation to capture Crete in May 1941. He eventually ended up in the Balkans at the end of the Second World War and surrendered to Yugoslav partisans. They did not like his bombing of Belgrade during the initial attack and he was executed in 1947 for his part in the operation.

The XI Air Corps

The German airborne force included the 7th Air Division, which was the paratroops, the 1st Assault Regiment, the glider-borne troops, "and the aircraft group". The aircraft group was equipped with the transport aircraft that were used to carry troops. The glider troops had a regiment of four battalions. Each battalion had four companies (a square organization). The Air Division was not a square organization, as the division had three regiments of three battalions of paratroops. The regiments had an artillery company and an anti-tank company. The 5th Mountain Division was also part of the corps. The intent was that they would largely come by sea, but some would fly into Crete on transport aircraft. In the event, because of the strength of the Royal Navy, the mountain troops were flown into Crete in sufficient strength to overwhelm the defenders. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

Airborne attack lessons from Crete

The Germans overreacted to the problems with the airborne attack on Crete and decided to not make such an attack again. I would say that at least Hitler misread the situation. Yes, making a daylight parachute attack on defenders who expect the attack does not work well. The casualties among German paratroops at Crete were high because they were dropped onto defending troops who then shot the paratroops during the descent. The Allies were so impressed by the concept that they formed their own airborne divisions, including parachute-equipped paratroops.

The glider-borne troops were much more successful. They were largely dropped and landed near, not on, the targets to be attacked. A few gliders were dropped too far at sea and were lost with their passengers, but most were able to land on the island. They were in numbers large enough to form cohesive units that were able to capture the airfield at Maleme. After the airfield was secured, transport aircraft were able to bring in a large number of mountain troops who were then able to overwhelm the defending force. The defenders were at a disadvantage due to the poor command communications systems. General Freyberg often was uninformed about the course of the battle, until the battle was lost.

The capture of the bridge over the Corinth canal in Greece in April 1941 was a good example where paratroops were used with the element of surprise. There was considerable secrecy involved (apparently), and the paratroops were dropped and caught the largely undefended area by surprise and took the bridge. To achieve a degree of surprise needed for the successful use of paratroops was why the British and American airborne troops were dropped at night at Normandy in June 1944. The operation still went awry due to the air transports totally ignoring the need for navigation. The paratroops ended up being scattered across Normandy in small parties, not able to reform units.

Now, special forces are dropped by parachute with an eye to achieving surprise and a degree of stealth. That is what is needed for any successful use of parachutists.

The German plan for Crete in 1941

The proposal for the airborne attack on Crete had only been made on 15 April 1941. There was only time for five weeks of planning and preparation prior to the attack on 20 May 1941. General Lohr had made the pitch to Field Marshal Goering. General Lohr planned to use General Student's XI Air Corps and General von Richthofen's VIII Air Corps for the attack. The units and aircraft were only in place on airfields in Southern Greece by 14 May. The Germans expected to be fighting one division, plus remnants evacuated from Greece in late April. General Student wanted to make four attacks in Crete, but there were insufficient aircraft to provide air cover for more than three simultaneous attacks. The plan then tried to accommodate that by making two attacks int morning and two in the afternoon on 20 May. That immediately handicapped the attacking force and reduced the chances for success. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

Naval support at Crete early in the attack

Admiral Cunningham, the Mediterranean Fleet commander, had a plan in place to keep seaborne invaders of Crete at bay. He had three cruiser-destroyer groups with supporting battleships to their westward. There were more ships at Alexandria, including the aircraft carrier Formidable (with only four aircraft) and two more battleships. On the evening of 20 May-21 May 1941, one cruiser-destroyer group fired on Italian motor torpedo boats and damaged four. The British had expected to see German troops brought to Crete by sea in caiques, but they were absent in the first day or two. So, the initial German attack was left to airborne troops supported by land-based aircraft from the Balkans. General Lohr commanded both the airborne troops and their transports and supporting fighter and bomber aircraft. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

Retimo and Heraklion on the first day or so

The attacks on Retimo and Keraklon (on Crete) came later in the day on 20 May 1941. At Retimo, the attackers were paratroops. They were countered and most were beaten, but one group held a ridge that commanded the airfield from the southeast. In the vicinity of Heraklion, paratroops that landed in the defended areas were beaten, although there were snipers still at work by the end of the day. The town of Heraklion was being disputed by the end of the day. There was fighting in progress there between the attackers and defenders. The quality of communications was so poor, that General Freyberg was uninformed about the status at Retimo and Heraklion. The General reported to his superiors that he thought that Retimo and Heraklion were still in British hands. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

The battle for Crete was really lost on the second day

Informed opinion says that the battle for Crete was lost on the second day, 21 May 1941. By then, the Germans had secured the airfield at Maleme, west of Suda Bay. Having the airfield allowed the Germans to fly in the mountain troops from the 5th Mountain Division. The mountain troops overwhelmed the defenders and ultimately captured Crete. The original German plan may have been to bring the mountain troops in by sea, but the Royal Navy had maintained control of the seas around Crete, although at great cost, so that the mountain troops arrived by Ju-52 transport aircraft at Maleme. Maleme had been a problem since the first day, when the New Zealand battalion designated to protect Maleme had collapsed. The battalion commander, Colonel Andrew, was a Victoria Cross recipient from the Great War, but that did not guarantee success. The remnants of the 22nd Battalion straggled away from the Maleme area leaving the Germans in possession of the landing field. The 21st and 23rd battalions had done better and were left to oppose the Germans.

Near Canea and Suda Bay

On 20 May 1941, some anti-aircraft guns south of Canea were captured by the Germans who landed nearby. The 1/Rangers and some carriere from the 1/Welch were eventually reinforced with two platoons of Royal Marines and some Greek troops from the 2nd Regiment. They were able to recaptured the guns. By late on 20 May, only small groups of Germans were left near Suda Bay and Canea. By late afternoon, reinforcements arrived from Georgioupolis, in the form of the 2/8th Battalion (presumably Australians). They were in line west of Mournies with the Composite Battalion, the 2/2nd Field Regiment, and the 2nd Greek Regiment. Further west, the Greeks were holding the harbor at Kastelli. During the attack, Germans landed nearby and were attacked by the Greek unit. The Greeks were largely successful with only one small German group resisting. A New Zealand platoon that was nearby captured the remaining Germans. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

Suda Bay on 20 May 1941

The New Zealand Division was located west of Suda Bay. General Weston commanded the force at Canea and Suda Bay. German paratroops had landed in the wooded area near Perivolia and were dealt with by the Composite Battalion, which had a strength of some 700 men. Paratroops actually landed in the area where the King of Greece was staying, but the New Zealanders and some armed Cretan men were able to extricate the King and keep him safe. He evacuated to the nearby hills. A glider attack had been mounted on the Akrotiri peninsula, but of the 15 gliders released over the sea, only 11 made the land. Some of the 11 were shot down, but most landed. The Northumberland Hussars were able to deal with the glider-borne troops. More gliders landed near some anti-aircraft guns south of Canea. The Germans captured the guns and gunners, but were surrounded by men from the 1/Rangers and carriers from the 1/Welch. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

Late on 20 May 1941 on Crete

When they heard on late 20 May 1931 that the Germans were clearing a landing ground near the prison, Colonel Kippenberger suggested to the division commander that they attack the prison area and recapture it. In the event, the attack happened at about 7:15pm. The attack was mounted by the 19th Battalion with three light tanks from the 3rd Hussars. By 8:30pm, they were within 1400 yards from the prison, on the north. Because of the darkness, the tank commander thought that they should stop for the night. The troops formed a surrounding perimeter around the tanks. By morning, the attackers withdrew. Only after the attack was Colonel Kippenberger given command of the 19th Battalion. They thought that the attack failed by being too late in the day and without adequate command from the senior commander in the area. By the night of 20 May, the Germans were left in possession of the airfield at Maleme, although it was under fire from the nearby artillery. The Germans also held the slopes near the prison and the reservoir and would be difficult to dislodge. This force threatened to break the New Zealand Division in two parts. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

Command on 20 May 1941 on Crete suffered from poor communications

The British army, in early 1941, suffered from unreliable radio communications. To compensate, they tended to rely on landlines. On 20 May 1941, wire line communications were disrupted by the German attack. That left General Freyberg and his commanders without adequate ability to communicate. We suspect that early during the German attack on Crete, the British were dependent on messengers, as that was all that they had left. Despite the communication situation, General Freyberg had learned enough to understand that the Maleme area was "the danger point". He ordered two battalions of the 4th Brigade to be put under the division commander's control. He also wanted to give him the entire reserve for use at Maleme. Brigadier Puttick, the division commander, was receiving "cheerful and confident" reports from the 5th Brigade, thought that he needed to keep the reserves to use against the expected attack by troops brought in by ship. By afternoon, he decided to attack the prison area, despite the fact that it was late in the day. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

The Galatas area on 20 to 21 May 1941

During the initial German attack on Crete on 20 May 1941, the 6th Greek Regiment quickly ran out of ammunition, with the remnants falling back towards Galatas. Captain Forrester, the British liaison officer, was able to rally some of the troops and linked up with the 19th Battalion and the Composite Battalion. The German attack was heading up the road by the prison and Galatas at 4pm. The defense held and the attack was repulsed for the moment. At the same time, the cavalry had arrived at Galatas. They had been out of touch, north of the reservoir. The cavalry was positioned to support the Greeks to the east, near Galatas, and were connected to the petrol company and the 19th Battalion. The 8th Greek Regiment was fighting, but was isolated. They heard that the Germans at the prison were making a landing field. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Official History.

The rest of Crete on 20 May 1941

A strong German paratroop and glider force had landed in the area protected by the 10th New Zealand Brigade. They were at Galatas, Alikianon, and the Aghya prison. About 1500 Germans had landed. Colonel Kippenberger went to the small house that he planned to use as a headquarters and found a German sniper, whom he killed. The 6th Greek Regiment quickly ran out of ammunition and was useless as a unit. A British officer was able to rally 400 of them who had fallen back towards Galatas. One bright spot was that the Germans at Galatas were captured by midday on 20 May 1941. By late in the day, the Germans were thought to be in control by the prison and were clearing an landing area to bring in more troops. In the 4th Brigade area, the hospital had been captured by the Germans, but was retaken. The 4th Brigade area included the New Zealand Division headquarters. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

At dawn on 21 May 1941 on Crete

The 5th New Zealand Brigade was in a good position at the beginning of the second day of the German attack on Crete on 21 May 1941. They had four battalions, of which only the 22nd Battalion had been disrupted. The NZE Detachment (New Zealand Engineers) was sitting to the east of the others. They had the 27th Battery, which was also partly in the territory of the 21st and 23rd Battalions. The 27th Battalion had a mixture of nine pieces, including two 3.7in Mountain Guns, three Italian 75mm and four classic French 75mm guns. The guns had survived the parachute drop, as did the NZE and the 28th (Maori) Battalion. The Maoris also cleaned out a group of Germans that were in a mill in front of the NZE Detachment. The Germans maintained air superiority over the brigade, however, and could hit the troops by air. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

The 21st NZ Battalion on the slopes: 20-21 May 1941

Lt-Col. Allen commanded the 21st New Zealand Battalion positioned on the slopes of the higher ground overlooking the 23rd Battalion during the initial German attack on Crete on 20 May 1941. About 100 German paratroops had dropped onto the slopes. They were all either killed or captured. Although he had authorization to move in the event that the 23rd Battalion moved, Allen decided that the 21st Battalion would continue to hold their area on the slopes. He did send one company to the two villages that were close. They were able to clear Xamondhokhori, but not Vlakheronitissa, as the latter had too many Germans. So far, only the 22nd Battalion had totally collapsed. The 23rd and 21st were still in place, holding their ground by early 21 May 1941. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.

The 23rd New Zealand Battalion at Crete on 20-21 May 1941

Immediately to the east of the 22nd NZ battalion, the 22nd NZ Battalion was on high ground,looking down on the main road. The 21st NZ Battalion actually was on even higher ground, looking down on the 23rd Battalion. Major Leckie was the 23rd Battalion commander in the fight. The 23rd Battalion managed to kill or at least run off the glider and paratroops that landed in their area. They believed that they had killed as many as 400 paratroops while they were still in the air and helpless. At noon, the 23rd Battalion remained in control of their area and were well positioned to defend themselves. One disquieting thing was that they were out of contact with the 22nd Battalion. Later in the afternoon, one company from the 23rd Battalion and one from the 28th (Maori) Battalion were sent to aid the 22nd Battalion. They eventually found the abandoned 22nd Battalion headquarters and in retreat and then found part of one company with Colonel Andrew. This was at about 2am. This is based on the account in Vol.II of the Australian Official History.