We judge that Rommel's reconnaissance raid named something like "Mid-Summer's Night Dream" (the Australian historian didn't like the Mid-Summer's Night part of the name and only called it the Summer's Night Dream. Rommel hoped to take the Tobruk fortress in his attack.His main concern was with his supply situation. Rommel's plan for the attack was dated about 26 October 1941. Three days later, Hitler issued his plan to reinforce the Mediterranean area. He appointed Field Marshal Kesselring as "Commander-In Chief South". Since Kesselring was an air force officer, we get a hint that the main reinforcements would be to the air force. The goal was to provide protection for the supply line feeding Rommel's forces in North Africa. They would also move against the island of Malta that was a base for ships and aircraft targeting the Axis supply line.
Improving the supply lines for North Africa was not to be an easy task. In November, the supplies delivered decreased considerably from what had been achieved. Only some 30,000 tons were delivered in November, while 70,000 had been a typical supply delivery achievement. In December, the Axis forces managed to deliver 39,000 tons, an improvement over November, but worse than what had been typical. The rest fell victim to British aircraft, surface ships, and submarines.
Most of the Axis losses at sea in November were caused by British surface warships. Force K operated from the island of Malta. Force K consisted of the cruisers Aurora and Penelope, along with the destroyers Lance and Lively. That situation changed, so that British submarines sank most of the supply ships.
German submarines were operating against the Tobruk seaborne supply line. They also caused some major warship losses. They sank the aircraft carrier Ark Royal on 14 November. Eleven days later, one submarine sank the battleship Barham. These losses made the urgency for tanking more western airfields of greater priority.
Rommel followed his plan as he had designed it. They would attack sometime between 15 and 20 November. The Africa Division (later renamed the 90th Light Division) would attack the Tobruk perimeter between the Barida Road and near El Adem and Pilastrano. Both the British and Axis forces used Italian maps that showed this in bold, apparently. They map showed a defensive position near the connection between the Bardia and El Adem roads. Once the Africa division had broken the perimeter, the 15th Armored Division would push through to the coast. They had some 100 gun-armed tanks, including ten captured Matildas and 38 light tanks (Pzkw I and II). The Italian XXI Corps would move to the elevated ground The 21st Armored Division would guard the frontier, but be close enough to move to Tobruk, if needed. They were positioned to satisfy General Halder, who wanted the frontier guarded. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Monday, April 30, 2018
Wednesday, April 25, 2018
More about Cunningham's plan for Operation Crusader
We have seen that putting the British armored forces near Gabr Saleh was decided so that the three brigades were near each other, but in position so that they could support the XIII Corps infantry divisions that would try to hold the Axis forces near the frontier. XXX Corps had fighting the enemy armored forces as their priority. They would at least start the battle with the British armor concentrated. They had the advantage as well of having a force of all-arms, since they had the 1st South African Division and the 22nd Guards Brigade.
Only after defeating the enemy armored forces would XXX Corps try to lift the Tobruk siege. Once that they were ready to break through to Tobruk, the South Africans would move to Sidi Rezegh, and the nearby ridges. The Tobruk garrison would take Ed Duda. XIII Corps would move from the Egyptian Frontier and move towards Tobruk, clearing the enemy from the area. This seems like a decent plan. Of course, we know now that the British forces did not follow the plan.
The battle started to go wrong when the enemy armored forces defeated XXX Corps. However, the plan already had been abandoned. One British armored brigade with the support group moved to Sidi Rezegh, but without the South African division. The tank battle was fought near Sidi Rezegh and the result was that the enemy armor beat the British armor and also overran a South African infantry brigade. The British were forced from the vicinity of Sidi Rezegh.
The next phase of the battle consisted of the German armor flitting around the battlefield and taking heavy losses while attempting to attack XIII Corps. XIII Corps had the infantry tank brigade, equipped with Matildas and Valentines, which were well protected. XIII Corps was able to conduct combined operations with tanks and infantry. They were able to control the frontier, while connecting up with the Tobruk garrison. XXX Corps was reduced to rebuilding its tank strength through replacements and recovery and repair.
There was a third phase of the Crusader battle. XXX Corps and restored its tank strength, but was again defeated by the German armored divisions. The Germans had been pushed back to the narrow area between Cyrenaica and Tripolitania. The Germans rebounded right back to the Gazala area where the opposing armies were holding positions and readying for the next battle.
Rommel was always looking for opportunities to exploit. He was always looking to infiltrate into the enemy area and throw them off balance. The British often were easy to panic, so infiltration tactics worked well against the British as they had worked well for Rommel in the Alps during the Great War. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Only after defeating the enemy armored forces would XXX Corps try to lift the Tobruk siege. Once that they were ready to break through to Tobruk, the South Africans would move to Sidi Rezegh, and the nearby ridges. The Tobruk garrison would take Ed Duda. XIII Corps would move from the Egyptian Frontier and move towards Tobruk, clearing the enemy from the area. This seems like a decent plan. Of course, we know now that the British forces did not follow the plan.
The battle started to go wrong when the enemy armored forces defeated XXX Corps. However, the plan already had been abandoned. One British armored brigade with the support group moved to Sidi Rezegh, but without the South African division. The tank battle was fought near Sidi Rezegh and the result was that the enemy armor beat the British armor and also overran a South African infantry brigade. The British were forced from the vicinity of Sidi Rezegh.
The next phase of the battle consisted of the German armor flitting around the battlefield and taking heavy losses while attempting to attack XIII Corps. XIII Corps had the infantry tank brigade, equipped with Matildas and Valentines, which were well protected. XIII Corps was able to conduct combined operations with tanks and infantry. They were able to control the frontier, while connecting up with the Tobruk garrison. XXX Corps was reduced to rebuilding its tank strength through replacements and recovery and repair.
There was a third phase of the Crusader battle. XXX Corps and restored its tank strength, but was again defeated by the German armored divisions. The Germans had been pushed back to the narrow area between Cyrenaica and Tripolitania. The Germans rebounded right back to the Gazala area where the opposing armies were holding positions and readying for the next battle.
Rommel was always looking for opportunities to exploit. He was always looking to infiltrate into the enemy area and throw them off balance. The British often were easy to panic, so infiltration tactics worked well against the British as they had worked well for Rommel in the Alps during the Great War. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Monday, April 23, 2018
General Cunningham's plan for Operation Crusader
General Cunningham's plan for Operation Crusader, intended to launch in November 1941, followed the usual British system for the desert. They dispersed their forces, rather than concentrating them. The Australian historian mentions that the command structure provided to General Cunningham supposed that the tanks and infantry would be separated. The army headquarters controlled the XXX Corps, the main tank organization, and the XIII Corps, the main infantry organization. The XXX Corps with the fast tanks were in the south, while the XIII Corps with two infantry divisions was in the north, near the Mediterranean coast.
The actual story is somewhat different. The southern force had the 7th Armoured Division with two armored brigades. They did have an infantry division, the 1st South African Division with two brigades and the third brigade being the 22nd Guards Brigade. They were augmented by extra medium artillery and anti-tank gun regiments. The role of what was nominally the center group was actually the army tank brigade whose role was to support the northern group, which was the XIII Corps, which had the New Zealand Division and the 4th Indian Division.
General Cunningham's idea was that if the two German armored divisions were concentrated, they would have a superiority in tanks over the 7th Armoured Division. The answer had to be that the British would have the third armored brigade with infantry tanks located within a shorter distance to the XXX Corps, so they could close with them and concentrate against the two German armored divisions. General Cunningham said, as the Australian historian mentions, that if the Germans used their two armored divisions separately, the British could still concentrate against one of them.Some critics had said that Cunningham had said that if the Germans split their armored divisions, the British would split their tank force in two.
General Cunningham's plan in final form was that the three British armored brigades would be together near Gabr Saleh. Gabr Saleh was located near the intersection of the track from Bardia and the Trigh el Abd. The reason for this location is that the brigades were concentrated, but still within supporting distance to the XIII Corps in the north. The Australian historian pointed out that Gabr Saleh was behind the enemy's fortified line between Salum in the north and Sidi Omar to the south. They were centrally located so that they could move out in a number of different directions, including towards Tobruk. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
The actual story is somewhat different. The southern force had the 7th Armoured Division with two armored brigades. They did have an infantry division, the 1st South African Division with two brigades and the third brigade being the 22nd Guards Brigade. They were augmented by extra medium artillery and anti-tank gun regiments. The role of what was nominally the center group was actually the army tank brigade whose role was to support the northern group, which was the XIII Corps, which had the New Zealand Division and the 4th Indian Division.
General Cunningham's idea was that if the two German armored divisions were concentrated, they would have a superiority in tanks over the 7th Armoured Division. The answer had to be that the British would have the third armored brigade with infantry tanks located within a shorter distance to the XXX Corps, so they could close with them and concentrate against the two German armored divisions. General Cunningham said, as the Australian historian mentions, that if the Germans used their two armored divisions separately, the British could still concentrate against one of them.Some critics had said that Cunningham had said that if the Germans split their armored divisions, the British would split their tank force in two.
General Cunningham's plan in final form was that the three British armored brigades would be together near Gabr Saleh. Gabr Saleh was located near the intersection of the track from Bardia and the Trigh el Abd. The reason for this location is that the brigades were concentrated, but still within supporting distance to the XIII Corps in the north. The Australian historian pointed out that Gabr Saleh was behind the enemy's fortified line between Salum in the north and Sidi Omar to the south. They were centrally located so that they could move out in a number of different directions, including towards Tobruk. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Thursday, April 19, 2018
"Only a week": the 2/13th Battalion departure was only to be delayed by a week
The 2/13th Battalion was told that they would leave Tobruk on "the night of 19-20 November" 1941. The British fortress commander, General Scobie was the one who told the battalion of the new plan. Their departure was to be delayed by just a week. The Australian historian thought that the British were being grossly over-confident in their estimation of the chances of success. While during past defeats, the British had been out-numbered by the enemy forces, this time they expected to have a larger army than the enemy and would have better equipment. The Australian historian, though, thought that this time, they were excessively over-confident, much more so than they were a year later at the Second El-Alamein.
The next piece of information was Churchill's letter to the men prior to the coming operation, where he mentioned the King's confidence that the men would all do their duty. Looking back, on the night of 26-27 September 1941, the Western Army Headquarters was re-designated as the 8th Army. The army commander was the victor of the East African campaign,m General Alan Cunningham, the Mediterranean Fleet commander's brother. At the same time, the Western Desert Force was renamed XIII Corps. The XIII Corps was primarily and infantry unit. The armor was put under the control of XXX Corps on 21 October. The army now had a headquarters and had two corps under its command.
General Cunningham had drafted the plan for Operation Crusader initially on 28 September 1941. The plan was worked and reworked as time progressed, but the basic plan lasted up until the start of the operation. Cunningham's plan was a good approximation of Auchinleck's original suggestion. His plan included an operation to pin the enemy's forces on the coast and then and to stage a demonstration that appeared to be an advance towards Benghazi. The main striking force would strike across the way south from Fort Magdelana.
The northern attack to pin the enemy forces on the coast had the infantry tanks of the 1st Army Tank Brigade. They had an assortment of 145 tanks, including both Matildas and Valentines. The infantry component included the New Zealand Division and the 4th Indian Division. They were the divisions in the XIII Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Godwin-Austen.
The mobile tank force Rommel's army in the south. They had some 500 fast tanks. They included three brigades with American M-3 Stuart tanks, British Crusader tanks, and some older British cruiser tanks, such as the Cruiser Mark IVa (A.13), Cruiser Mark II (A.10), and possibly a few surviving A.9, Cruiser Mk. I's.The American tanks were originally governed down to about 32 miles per hour, but when the governers were removed, they could reach 40 miles per hour. The American tanks only had a 37mm gun, while the British had the standard 40mm 2-pounder gun. The support tanks, often used as headquarters vehicles had a 3-inch howitzer, firing high-explosive shells. XXXth Corps ended up being commanded by Lieutenant-General Norrie. He had been the 1st Armoured Division commander. He replaced General Pope as the mobile corps commander. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History, as well as our general knowledge of the British forces in Operation Crusader.
The next piece of information was Churchill's letter to the men prior to the coming operation, where he mentioned the King's confidence that the men would all do their duty. Looking back, on the night of 26-27 September 1941, the Western Army Headquarters was re-designated as the 8th Army. The army commander was the victor of the East African campaign,m General Alan Cunningham, the Mediterranean Fleet commander's brother. At the same time, the Western Desert Force was renamed XIII Corps. The XIII Corps was primarily and infantry unit. The armor was put under the control of XXX Corps on 21 October. The army now had a headquarters and had two corps under its command.
General Cunningham had drafted the plan for Operation Crusader initially on 28 September 1941. The plan was worked and reworked as time progressed, but the basic plan lasted up until the start of the operation. Cunningham's plan was a good approximation of Auchinleck's original suggestion. His plan included an operation to pin the enemy's forces on the coast and then and to stage a demonstration that appeared to be an advance towards Benghazi. The main striking force would strike across the way south from Fort Magdelana.
The northern attack to pin the enemy forces on the coast had the infantry tanks of the 1st Army Tank Brigade. They had an assortment of 145 tanks, including both Matildas and Valentines. The infantry component included the New Zealand Division and the 4th Indian Division. They were the divisions in the XIII Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Godwin-Austen.
The mobile tank force Rommel's army in the south. They had some 500 fast tanks. They included three brigades with American M-3 Stuart tanks, British Crusader tanks, and some older British cruiser tanks, such as the Cruiser Mark IVa (A.13), Cruiser Mark II (A.10), and possibly a few surviving A.9, Cruiser Mk. I's.The American tanks were originally governed down to about 32 miles per hour, but when the governers were removed, they could reach 40 miles per hour. The American tanks only had a 37mm gun, while the British had the standard 40mm 2-pounder gun. The support tanks, often used as headquarters vehicles had a 3-inch howitzer, firing high-explosive shells. XXXth Corps ended up being commanded by Lieutenant-General Norrie. He had been the 1st Armoured Division commander. He replaced General Pope as the mobile corps commander. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History, as well as our general knowledge of the British forces in Operation Crusader.
Monday, April 16, 2018
The run up to Operation Crusader in November 1941 at Tobruk
The units in Tobruk in November 1941 were focused on learning as much as possible about the plan for the impending Operation Crusader. The Australians assumed that they all would be leaving prior to Crusader. They were more interested in what the enemy forces might be planning. Everyone still expected that the 2/13th Battalion would be leaving Tobruk in November. They were told to plan on half leaving on 13 November and the other half after they were relieved by the Polish Officers Legion. The enemy air units restarted their high-level and dive bombing attacks. They targeted the artillery and the front line defenses. The enemy was also engaged in probing the defenders in the perimeter defenses.
suddenly, the 2/13th Battalion commander was called to the fortress headquarters. When he returned, he met with the company commanders. He informed him that the withdrawal from Tobruk was postponed for another week. The battalion's role would change, so that they would form part of the reserve for the attack from Tobruk towards the Egyptian frontier. They would stay in Tobruk, with half of the battalion on the coast and the other half at Pilastrano. The new plan was for the 2/13th Battalion to leave Tobruk by road, rather than by ship.
By now, the Australians had trouble taking the schedule seriously. They would believe dates when they saw the events happen. Over two nights, all the Australians but the 2/13th Battalion were4 removed by sea. The decision to leave the 2/13th Battalion in Tobruk for Operation Crusader is still something of a mystery. Speculation was that the Polish general had requested that the Polish Officers Legion be held in Egypt as the nucleus of complete Polish divisions in the Middle East. That meant that the 2/13th Battalion was still needed in Tobruk until after Operation Crusader. Middle East GHQ was discussing the possibility in early November.
The situation was that with the Tobruk garrison launching a sortie towards the Egyptian border, the forces available to General Scobie were stretched to a breaking point. He could not afford to lose the 2/13th Battalion due to the scarcity of the defensive forces. The situation was such that the British did not bother to sonsult the Australians about the need to keep the 2/13th Battalion. They just kept them and there was no discussion about the decision. Mr. Churchill invoked the authority of the King in a message to the troops involved with Operation Crusader. Mr. Churchill told the men that the King had expresed confidence that the men would "do their duty" in the coming battle. This was a battle where the British forces were well armed with the most modern weapons, putting them in a position of equality of weapons with the enemy forces. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
suddenly, the 2/13th Battalion commander was called to the fortress headquarters. When he returned, he met with the company commanders. He informed him that the withdrawal from Tobruk was postponed for another week. The battalion's role would change, so that they would form part of the reserve for the attack from Tobruk towards the Egyptian frontier. They would stay in Tobruk, with half of the battalion on the coast and the other half at Pilastrano. The new plan was for the 2/13th Battalion to leave Tobruk by road, rather than by ship.
By now, the Australians had trouble taking the schedule seriously. They would believe dates when they saw the events happen. Over two nights, all the Australians but the 2/13th Battalion were4 removed by sea. The decision to leave the 2/13th Battalion in Tobruk for Operation Crusader is still something of a mystery. Speculation was that the Polish general had requested that the Polish Officers Legion be held in Egypt as the nucleus of complete Polish divisions in the Middle East. That meant that the 2/13th Battalion was still needed in Tobruk until after Operation Crusader. Middle East GHQ was discussing the possibility in early November.
The situation was that with the Tobruk garrison launching a sortie towards the Egyptian border, the forces available to General Scobie were stretched to a breaking point. He could not afford to lose the 2/13th Battalion due to the scarcity of the defensive forces. The situation was such that the British did not bother to sonsult the Australians about the need to keep the 2/13th Battalion. They just kept them and there was no discussion about the decision. Mr. Churchill invoked the authority of the King in a message to the troops involved with Operation Crusader. Mr. Churchill told the men that the King had expresed confidence that the men would "do their duty" in the coming battle. This was a battle where the British forces were well armed with the most modern weapons, putting them in a position of equality of weapons with the enemy forces. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Friday, April 13, 2018
The Australian 2/13th Battalion in Tobruk from late October through November 1941
There seemed to be greater activity among the enemy that were besieging Tobruk. There were artillery operations under way. The British gunners could tell what the enemy were doing. The enemy was bombarding the Salient from 28 October 1941. The 1st RHA noticed that the enemy gunners were busy "registering targets" while the Salien was being hit.
While the artillery was more active, there were enemy patrol operations in the southeast of Tobruk. Since Brigadier Murray was still in Tobruk, he suggested that they form up the 2/13th Battalion and the two 2/15th Battalion companies into a force to hold the area by the El Adem and Bardia Roads. The Brigadier was concerned that the enemy might push into the fortress from the southeast. The British disagreed with his suggestion and took no action.
For the first two weeks of November, the situation seemed to have stabilized. The Polish brigade ran an operation that triggered an visual enemy response. The Polish brigade had artillery support and a smoke screen, and this triggered an enemy pyrotechnic display. The enemy fired multi-colored flare displays and then fired many rounds from artillery. The British had been prepared to plot gun positions by gun flashes, so they had accomplished their goal. Then the 1/Durham Light Infantry attempted to attack the Plonk post. They had a tank squadron in support as well as three 25-pdr regiments, but the attack went badly. They were caught in flanking small arms fire and ran into booby-traps. The battalion had 8 men missing and another fourteen wounded.
The enemy seemed to be giving the southeast perimeter of Tobruk some increased attention. When the moon was full, a group of thirty to forty men came up to the perimeter wire. The anti-tank ditch in the area was only four feet deep. They reached the ditch but pulled back when the British counter-attacked. Another group of men crossed the perimeter on 10 November. The happened near Post R53. Men from the 2/Queens attacked and drove the enemy back. Tanks were also active. The 21sr Armored Division had been seen about nine miles to the south of the southeast Tobruk perimeter. The 1st RHA noticed them and thought that they might be both observing the fortress and also getting into position for a possible attack.
By the second week of November, Tobruk was abuzz over the expected offensive towards Tobruk. One thing that happened was that the 1st RHA now was pulled into reserve and given transport so that it was "fully mobile". To achieve that, other units were stripped of vehicles. The men could see that work was underway to allow for a sortee from Tobruk from the southeast. The Battleaxe Operation had a similar plan. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
While the artillery was more active, there were enemy patrol operations in the southeast of Tobruk. Since Brigadier Murray was still in Tobruk, he suggested that they form up the 2/13th Battalion and the two 2/15th Battalion companies into a force to hold the area by the El Adem and Bardia Roads. The Brigadier was concerned that the enemy might push into the fortress from the southeast. The British disagreed with his suggestion and took no action.
For the first two weeks of November, the situation seemed to have stabilized. The Polish brigade ran an operation that triggered an visual enemy response. The Polish brigade had artillery support and a smoke screen, and this triggered an enemy pyrotechnic display. The enemy fired multi-colored flare displays and then fired many rounds from artillery. The British had been prepared to plot gun positions by gun flashes, so they had accomplished their goal. Then the 1/Durham Light Infantry attempted to attack the Plonk post. They had a tank squadron in support as well as three 25-pdr regiments, but the attack went badly. They were caught in flanking small arms fire and ran into booby-traps. The battalion had 8 men missing and another fourteen wounded.
The enemy seemed to be giving the southeast perimeter of Tobruk some increased attention. When the moon was full, a group of thirty to forty men came up to the perimeter wire. The anti-tank ditch in the area was only four feet deep. They reached the ditch but pulled back when the British counter-attacked. Another group of men crossed the perimeter on 10 November. The happened near Post R53. Men from the 2/Queens attacked and drove the enemy back. Tanks were also active. The 21sr Armored Division had been seen about nine miles to the south of the southeast Tobruk perimeter. The 1st RHA noticed them and thought that they might be both observing the fortress and also getting into position for a possible attack.
By the second week of November, Tobruk was abuzz over the expected offensive towards Tobruk. One thing that happened was that the 1st RHA now was pulled into reserve and given transport so that it was "fully mobile". To achieve that, other units were stripped of vehicles. The men could see that work was underway to allow for a sortee from Tobruk from the southeast. The Battleaxe Operation had a similar plan. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Wednesday, April 11, 2018
Australians still at Tobruk in October 1941
The Australians of the 2/13th Battalion had moved into their new positions on the fortress perimeter from the sea to Post S33 apparently on the night of 26-27 October 1941. A captured spy had predicted an attack the next day, so the battalion sat ready to fight. The fight never happened, happily. The Czechoslovakian battalion was holding the perimeter on the left. The 2/13th Battalion had two companies holding the line. They were also in the three Cocoa posts. The left company also held the Cheetah posts. The third company was held in reserve. During the evening of October 28, another company moved into reserve at the Wadi Magrun. The 2/13th Battalion enjoyed their time in the best place they had occupied in Tobruk. There were wadis and hills, so the men got needed exercise. The men stuck on the actual perimeter missed out in bathing on the beaches. By the end of October, the weather was cooling and they no longer were in the scorching sun. The men were not so involved with long patrols, but there was still some of that activity. They even went out during the day, such as one long patrol to the Wadi Bu Dueisa.
The 2/15th battalion had two companies at Fort Pilastrano. They were not involved with patrolling, the area was not as pleasant as the area where the 2/13th Battalion was located. After the end of October, they moved to the Wadi Auda, which was much nicer. The downside was that the area was a target for enemy bombers, but there was much water there and it was green. The 20th Brigade headquarters and part of the 9th Australian Division headquarters were located nearby. They were located in a wadi just to the west of Wadi Auda.
During this time, the enemy continued to focus on the area to the south and east of Tobruk. There had been a outpost Cooma, but the enemy had overrun it. The men from Cooma during the night of 27 October, after being missing for two days. That was some action to the left of the Essex Battalion. Enemy infantry and tanks were seen on the move. This was near the El Adem Road. Once the enemy force had gotten to within 300 yards, they took fire from the British infantry.
Another development saw some enemy soldiers enter the perimeter near post R51. They moved around for about a half hour before they left. Somewhat later, other enemy soldiers were seen working on the perimeter wire near Post R47. The British also noticed that the enemy force in the Salient now seemed to be Italian rather than German. The German artillery units that had been there were thought to now be in the southeast of Tobruk. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
The 2/15th battalion had two companies at Fort Pilastrano. They were not involved with patrolling, the area was not as pleasant as the area where the 2/13th Battalion was located. After the end of October, they moved to the Wadi Auda, which was much nicer. The downside was that the area was a target for enemy bombers, but there was much water there and it was green. The 20th Brigade headquarters and part of the 9th Australian Division headquarters were located nearby. They were located in a wadi just to the west of Wadi Auda.
During this time, the enemy continued to focus on the area to the south and east of Tobruk. There had been a outpost Cooma, but the enemy had overrun it. The men from Cooma during the night of 27 October, after being missing for two days. That was some action to the left of the Essex Battalion. Enemy infantry and tanks were seen on the move. This was near the El Adem Road. Once the enemy force had gotten to within 300 yards, they took fire from the British infantry.
Another development saw some enemy soldiers enter the perimeter near post R51. They moved around for about a half hour before they left. Somewhat later, other enemy soldiers were seen working on the perimeter wire near Post R47. The British also noticed that the enemy force in the Salient now seemed to be Italian rather than German. The German artillery units that had been there were thought to now be in the southeast of Tobruk. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Friday, April 06, 2018
The last days of the Australians at Tobruk in October 1941
With Australians stuck temporarily at Tobruk, they needed to be provided for. The 2/13th Battalion had given their equipment to the British "Yorks and Lancs" battalion. We already saw that they were given the equipment that had been intended for the Polish Officers Legion. The battalion would be under the control of the Polish Carpathian Brigade for the last acts in Tobruk. The Polish Cavalry Regiment was holding a front in the Salient. Three companies of the battalion were sent out to the area, while the fourth company waited for the area that they would be assigned to be visited.
This was part of the Western Sector, which had traditionally been over-extended. There was some effort made to shorten the front to improve the situation. The plan had been to put the cavalry regiment in the center. On the right, the Polish battalion would get the new group. A new Czechoslovakian battalion was in the spot that the 2/13th would occupy. Where the 2/13th Battalion would hold, there was a deep wadi with posts cut into a cliff. The wadi was some 150 feet deep. If it rained, there would be water ata the bottom.
Tobruk had depended for a long time on water from wells in the no-mans land. There was even a pumping station in the wadi. That was only made possible first by the Indian cavalry and then the Polish cavalry. Their aggressive operations had kept the enemy from causing problems over the wells. There were some of the usual named outposts that guarded the water supply. They were named "Cocoa 1,2 and 3, Big Cheetah and Little Cheetah". They were located on the wadi side near the enemy.
The first men from the 2/13th Battalion went to the area during the night of 25-27 October 1941. In the morning of 27 October, Major Colvin visited the Polish Cavalry Regiment headquarters. There was still a great deal of dust in the air following the previous days' dust storm. The Polish brigade commander stopped by the cavalry regiment headquarters at about 10:30am. He told Major Colvin, of the 2/13th Battalion, that a prisoner had told them that the enemy planned to attack near the wadi on the next morning. Two Libyans had been captured. One was a civilian spy who had been sent to scout the area. General Kopanski, the Polish commander, met with Colonel Burrows and General Scobie to talk about the news. They considered not having the 2/13th move into place, but decided to go ahead with the planned move. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
This was part of the Western Sector, which had traditionally been over-extended. There was some effort made to shorten the front to improve the situation. The plan had been to put the cavalry regiment in the center. On the right, the Polish battalion would get the new group. A new Czechoslovakian battalion was in the spot that the 2/13th would occupy. Where the 2/13th Battalion would hold, there was a deep wadi with posts cut into a cliff. The wadi was some 150 feet deep. If it rained, there would be water ata the bottom.
Tobruk had depended for a long time on water from wells in the no-mans land. There was even a pumping station in the wadi. That was only made possible first by the Indian cavalry and then the Polish cavalry. Their aggressive operations had kept the enemy from causing problems over the wells. There were some of the usual named outposts that guarded the water supply. They were named "Cocoa 1,2 and 3, Big Cheetah and Little Cheetah". They were located on the wadi side near the enemy.
The first men from the 2/13th Battalion went to the area during the night of 25-27 October 1941. In the morning of 27 October, Major Colvin visited the Polish Cavalry Regiment headquarters. There was still a great deal of dust in the air following the previous days' dust storm. The Polish brigade commander stopped by the cavalry regiment headquarters at about 10:30am. He told Major Colvin, of the 2/13th Battalion, that a prisoner had told them that the enemy planned to attack near the wadi on the next morning. Two Libyans had been captured. One was a civilian spy who had been sent to scout the area. General Kopanski, the Polish commander, met with Colonel Burrows and General Scobie to talk about the news. They considered not having the 2/13th move into place, but decided to go ahead with the planned move. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Tuesday, April 03, 2018
Seeing the last Australians off from Tobruk
Supply operations for Tobruk continued in August 1941. More petrol and supplies were carried into Tobruk. We have already mentioned operation Treacle involved a cruiser covering force, two fast minelayers, and the usual destroyers. They had transported some six thousand men into Tobruk and removed about 5,500 men. Septembere saw the important operation named Supercharge. Supercharge also included a cruiser covering force and a larger RAF fighter force. The actual numbers of men carried into Tobruk were 6,308. They removed 5,988 men, including 544 wounded. The ships carried in more petrol andd supplies. They also brought 29 tanks to add to the tank force. One last operation named Cultivate received more unwanted attention from the enemy. The last night of Cultivate saw the fast minelayer Latona sunk and the destroyer Hero damaged. Larger numbers of men were moved both in and out. Some 7,138 men were carried into Tobruk and 7,234 were removed. The naval force lost heavily in the process. Ships, including the petrol carrier, Pass of Balmaha, and others were sunk and more were damaged.
The Inshore Squadron was involved in the last operation to remove Australians from Tobruk, starting on 13 November 1941. The only Australian unit left in Tobruk was the 2/13th Battalion. In operations involving ships near Tobruk, from 11 April until 9 December 1941, 26 navy ships and 5 merchant ships were lost. Another four navy ships and four merchant ships were damaged. Australian destroyers were involved in the runs to Tobruk and back. Two Australian sloops were also involved with the Parramatta being lost.
The last Australians at Tobruk, the 2/13th Battalion were witness to a heavy dust storm. The Durham Light Infantry managed to provide breakfast to the Australians. It turns out that there were also two companies from the 2/15th Battalion left, as well. They were located near Fort Pilastrano. The Australian brigade commander, Brigadier Murray met with General Scobie to talk about what they would do with the remaining Australians. The Australians had turned over all their equipment, except what they personally carried. The new plan was for them to use equipment that had been intended for use by the Polish Officers Legion. There was work to be done to plan where to go and how they would move into place. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History
The Inshore Squadron was involved in the last operation to remove Australians from Tobruk, starting on 13 November 1941. The only Australian unit left in Tobruk was the 2/13th Battalion. In operations involving ships near Tobruk, from 11 April until 9 December 1941, 26 navy ships and 5 merchant ships were lost. Another four navy ships and four merchant ships were damaged. Australian destroyers were involved in the runs to Tobruk and back. Two Australian sloops were also involved with the Parramatta being lost.
The last Australians at Tobruk, the 2/13th Battalion were witness to a heavy dust storm. The Durham Light Infantry managed to provide breakfast to the Australians. It turns out that there were also two companies from the 2/15th Battalion left, as well. They were located near Fort Pilastrano. The Australian brigade commander, Brigadier Murray met with General Scobie to talk about what they would do with the remaining Australians. The Australians had turned over all their equipment, except what they personally carried. The new plan was for them to use equipment that had been intended for use by the Polish Officers Legion. There was work to be done to plan where to go and how they would move into place. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History
Wednesday, March 28, 2018
Problem with supply ships for Tobruk, starting in June 1941
A supply run to Tobruk that left Alexandria, Egypt, on 23 June 1941 had severe problems. The petrol carrier Pass of Balmaha was escorted by two sloops, the Auckland and the Parramatta. There was also a store ship, the Antiklia that was escorted by the sloop Flamingo. The promised fighter cover did not arrive. A bomb hit the Auckland and the ship was sunk. The Pass of Balmaha took damage from a near miss. The destroyer Waterhen arrived on the scene and started to tow the Pass oof Balmaha. The Parramatta turned around and took the survivors of the Auckland back to Alexandria. The Antiklia was diverted to Mersa Matruh until a fighter escort could be provided. The Antiklia finally got underway, heading for Tobruk, but turned back when heavy weather was encountered. The Antiklia set out again on 29 June accompanied by the supply ship Miranda. They had a three ship escort of small warships. The destroyer Waterhen was hit by a bomb off of Sidi Barrani in the evening of 29 June. Another destroyer, the Defender, took the crew off from the Waterhen and attempted to tow the ship. The Defender noticed an Italian submarine and fired on her. The Italian submarine dove to escape. The Waterhen eventually took on so much water that she rolled over and sank. During the afternoon of 30 June, a large force of bombers with fighter escort was driven off by RAF and South African fighters. The store ships arrived safely at Tobruk. Two escorting ships were damaged. The petrol carrier, Pass of Balmaha arrived safely at Tobruk, as well. Her cargo of petrol was successfully delivered.
A change of plan was tried following this operation. Eight "A" Lighter landing craft were provided for cargo runs to Tobruk. Two were able to reach Tobruk on 7 July. The first time used three days. They arrived at night. They would unload on the next night. They would sail on the third night. They decided to experiment with a faster turn around. They would arrive at night. They would unload under "camouflage nets" during the day. Then they would sail on that night. In parallel, the destroyer supply runs would continue. They also experimented with running the fast minelayers Abdiel and Latona. They were capable of making 40-knot speeds and had considerable space for cargo, since they were designed to carry mines.The month of July was very successful for supplying Tobruk. Ships brought in some 5,000 tons. They managed to run some small merchant ships and sailing vessels to carry ammunition and treats for the soldiers.
They experimented again with using schooners. They had first tried them to see if they could be sailed by volunteers. They found that the needed to put the service on a more regular basis, so they created the Western Desert Schooner Flotilla and put Lieutenant-Commander Duff in charge. They tried some foreign vessels and crews on the run, but the best were the British vessels and crews. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
A change of plan was tried following this operation. Eight "A" Lighter landing craft were provided for cargo runs to Tobruk. Two were able to reach Tobruk on 7 July. The first time used three days. They arrived at night. They would unload on the next night. They would sail on the third night. They decided to experiment with a faster turn around. They would arrive at night. They would unload under "camouflage nets" during the day. Then they would sail on that night. In parallel, the destroyer supply runs would continue. They also experimented with running the fast minelayers Abdiel and Latona. They were capable of making 40-knot speeds and had considerable space for cargo, since they were designed to carry mines.The month of July was very successful for supplying Tobruk. Ships brought in some 5,000 tons. They managed to run some small merchant ships and sailing vessels to carry ammunition and treats for the soldiers.
They experimented again with using schooners. They had first tried them to see if they could be sailed by volunteers. They found that the needed to put the service on a more regular basis, so they created the Western Desert Schooner Flotilla and put Lieutenant-Commander Duff in charge. They tried some foreign vessels and crews on the run, but the best were the British vessels and crews. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Monday, March 26, 2018
Supply runs for Tobruk in 1941
Ships bringing supplies to Tobruk left ports in Egypt. The ships involved were generally small and they included the 40-knot fast minelayers. Some of the supply ships used sail power. The ships faced danger from air attack and from submarines. The wakes of ships at night were very visible in moonlight.
Captain Poland commanded the inshore squadron. He took command on 5 February 1941 and continued until the siege was lifted. At the beginning, the squadron included "two destroyers, three river gunboats and other small craft. They originally were employed for protecting shipping and for attacking enemy targets. Merchant ships entered and exited the Tobruk harbor both in daytime and nighttime. The Tobruk harbor accumulated ship wrecks over time.
Tobruk-bound shipping could not be protected by fighter aircraft. This was partly due to the scarcity of fighters and because the RAF had abandoned western airfields. The inshore squadron took heavy losses. Between 12 April 1941 and 1 June, they lost "a whaler, 2 armed boarding vessels, 2 minesweepers, a gunboat, a sloop and an anti-submarine trawler, and had four other ships damaged". Starting in early May 1941, the decision was made to employ ships of the 10th Destroyer Flotilla to carry supplies to Tobruk. The flotilla included five Australian destroyers. The first run was made on 5 May by two of the V-class destroyers. Once the battle for Crete commenced, destroyers were mostly involved in that operation.
Once the Germans had captured Crete, air attacks increased on shipping that was supplying Tobruk. Admiral Cunningham issued an order to only use destroyers on the run to Tobruk, and then only at night. That started as of 7 June 1941. The destroyers ran supply missions until 15 June, when Operation Battleaxe caused the end of the runs. They were restarted on 18 June. The Inshore Squadron now had four destroyers, three sloops, two gunboats, along with other smaller ships. They also now had some "A" Lighters, which were early landing craft. For a period, two destroyers would run into Tobruk, unload, and then leave during the night. This typically happened two nights out of three.
To send adequate supplies to Tobruk, slower ships had to supplement what was sent by destroyer. Supporting air power included "three Royal Air Force and two South African Air Force Squadrons. The closest air field for supporting Tobruk was one hundred miles a way at Sidi Barrani. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Captain Poland commanded the inshore squadron. He took command on 5 February 1941 and continued until the siege was lifted. At the beginning, the squadron included "two destroyers, three river gunboats and other small craft. They originally were employed for protecting shipping and for attacking enemy targets. Merchant ships entered and exited the Tobruk harbor both in daytime and nighttime. The Tobruk harbor accumulated ship wrecks over time.
Tobruk-bound shipping could not be protected by fighter aircraft. This was partly due to the scarcity of fighters and because the RAF had abandoned western airfields. The inshore squadron took heavy losses. Between 12 April 1941 and 1 June, they lost "a whaler, 2 armed boarding vessels, 2 minesweepers, a gunboat, a sloop and an anti-submarine trawler, and had four other ships damaged". Starting in early May 1941, the decision was made to employ ships of the 10th Destroyer Flotilla to carry supplies to Tobruk. The flotilla included five Australian destroyers. The first run was made on 5 May by two of the V-class destroyers. Once the battle for Crete commenced, destroyers were mostly involved in that operation.
Once the Germans had captured Crete, air attacks increased on shipping that was supplying Tobruk. Admiral Cunningham issued an order to only use destroyers on the run to Tobruk, and then only at night. That started as of 7 June 1941. The destroyers ran supply missions until 15 June, when Operation Battleaxe caused the end of the runs. They were restarted on 18 June. The Inshore Squadron now had four destroyers, three sloops, two gunboats, along with other smaller ships. They also now had some "A" Lighters, which were early landing craft. For a period, two destroyers would run into Tobruk, unload, and then leave during the night. This typically happened two nights out of three.
To send adequate supplies to Tobruk, slower ships had to supplement what was sent by destroyer. Supporting air power included "three Royal Air Force and two South African Air Force Squadrons. The closest air field for supporting Tobruk was one hundred miles a way at Sidi Barrani. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Thursday, March 22, 2018
More about bombing attacks on Tobruk in 1941
Apparently, the effectiveness of anti-aircraft barrages across the line of flight greatly effected daylight high level bombing attacks. After July 1941, bombing attacks mostly switched to the night. They still might attack during the day if there were inviting targets, but mostly, they found that they could more effectively bomb at night. There is another table giving the numbers of night bombers employed per month in 1941.
Night Bombers employed
Last 21 nights of April 32
May 74
June 132
July 126
August 205
September 187
First 9 days of October 152
The night raids in April and May 1941 were mostly low-level attacks to drop "thermos" bombs. By June, all night raids but one were made with high-level bombing. A major change started with 21 July, when night bombers dropped mines hoping to block the harbor entrance. Two more mine laying attacks occurred in the last week ofo July. The night bombing intensified, and this became a serious matter. Some raids were as large as fifty aircraft at night. The enemy also mixed bombing and minelaying to attempt to confuse the defense. Attacks did not occur every night, but were mostly during nights with moon light. Up through July, night bombers would attack singly. As many as 30 to 50 per cent were turned back by barrages. Anti-aircraft gunners were hard pressed by lack of sleep. To counter aircraft dropping mines, listening devices were used and they fired a barrage in conjunction with searchlights center and ends of the harbor. The barrage, when it could be fired in time, was so effective that the enemy would avoid it.
To understand the effort involved, from 10 April to 9 October 1941, some 3,525 aircarft were fired on by anti-aircraft guns. They lost 40 gunners killed and 128 men were wounded. They fired greater than 49,000 rounds of 3.7in anti-aircraft rounds. The available guns can be seen by the rounds fired. Another 3,700 40mm rounds were fired. The scale of 20mm guns meant that they fired some 75,000 rounds. There were also captured Italian guns in use, so there were even more than these fired. The guns were thought to have definitely destroyed 74 aircraft. Another 59 aircraft were probably destroyed. finally, another 145 aircraft were thought to have been damaged. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Night Bombers employed
Last 21 nights of April 32
May 74
June 132
July 126
August 205
September 187
First 9 days of October 152
The night raids in April and May 1941 were mostly low-level attacks to drop "thermos" bombs. By June, all night raids but one were made with high-level bombing. A major change started with 21 July, when night bombers dropped mines hoping to block the harbor entrance. Two more mine laying attacks occurred in the last week ofo July. The night bombing intensified, and this became a serious matter. Some raids were as large as fifty aircraft at night. The enemy also mixed bombing and minelaying to attempt to confuse the defense. Attacks did not occur every night, but were mostly during nights with moon light. Up through July, night bombers would attack singly. As many as 30 to 50 per cent were turned back by barrages. Anti-aircraft gunners were hard pressed by lack of sleep. To counter aircraft dropping mines, listening devices were used and they fired a barrage in conjunction with searchlights center and ends of the harbor. The barrage, when it could be fired in time, was so effective that the enemy would avoid it.
To understand the effort involved, from 10 April to 9 October 1941, some 3,525 aircarft were fired on by anti-aircraft guns. They lost 40 gunners killed and 128 men were wounded. They fired greater than 49,000 rounds of 3.7in anti-aircraft rounds. The available guns can be seen by the rounds fired. Another 3,700 40mm rounds were fired. The scale of 20mm guns meant that they fired some 75,000 rounds. There were also captured Italian guns in use, so there were even more than these fired. The guns were thought to have definitely destroyed 74 aircraft. Another 59 aircraft were probably destroyed. finally, another 145 aircraft were thought to have been damaged. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Wednesday, March 21, 2018
Bombing attacks on Tobruk in 1941
The enemy air attacks on British anti-aircraft guns at Tobruk were primarily with dive bombers. The gun crews quickly learned that they could be most effective by staying with their guns during attacks rather than taking cover. The dive bombers were apparently all Ju-87 Stukas. Of the dive bombing attacks at Tobruk from the last twenty days of April 1941 until October 9, nineteen of these attacks were against the anti-aircraft guns. The last attack on the guns was on 1 September 1941 after commencing on 10 April. When you look at the chart you can see that the number of aircraft involved decreased over time, as the raids became more dangerous to the attackers. Frequently, at least one dive bomber took a direct hit during an attack on the anti-aircraft guns. This is from the chart on Page 411 of Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Month Dive bombing raids numbers of aircraft involved
April (last 20 days) 21 386
May 17 277
June 6 123
July 4 79
August 11 217
September 1 46
October (first 9 days) 2 57
As the enemy realized that dive bombing raids were too ineffective for the effort involved, they switched to high level bombing raids. The level bombers generally flew at between 18,000 and 25,000 feet. The defenders on the ground had trouble seeing the attacking aircraft. Even though the defenders were hampered by the high altitude attacks, the attackers were able to bomb effectively. Initially, the defenders could not see the aircraft until they dropped their bombs. To try to improve their ability to see the high level bombers, the defenders started listening for the sound of aircraft so that they could predict where to point their telescopic lenses. This was not a very successful tactic. The next tactic tried was to fire a barrage of shells into the expected aircraft path. The barrages were designed to be in the course flown to known targets in the harbor area. They had 16 heavy anti-aircraft guns, so they were used in four-gun groups. By September, the guns had a position officer who had the authority to decide when to fire. They had to be watching for the attacking aircraft to fly deceptive routes to attempt to outwit the guns. The use of the barrages was very effective and caused the attacking bombers to have problems hitting targets. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Month Dive bombing raids numbers of aircraft involved
April (last 20 days) 21 386
May 17 277
June 6 123
July 4 79
August 11 217
September 1 46
October (first 9 days) 2 57
As the enemy realized that dive bombing raids were too ineffective for the effort involved, they switched to high level bombing raids. The level bombers generally flew at between 18,000 and 25,000 feet. The defenders on the ground had trouble seeing the attacking aircraft. Even though the defenders were hampered by the high altitude attacks, the attackers were able to bomb effectively. Initially, the defenders could not see the aircraft until they dropped their bombs. To try to improve their ability to see the high level bombers, the defenders started listening for the sound of aircraft so that they could predict where to point their telescopic lenses. This was not a very successful tactic. The next tactic tried was to fire a barrage of shells into the expected aircraft path. The barrages were designed to be in the course flown to known targets in the harbor area. They had 16 heavy anti-aircraft guns, so they were used in four-gun groups. By September, the guns had a position officer who had the authority to decide when to fire. They had to be watching for the attacking aircraft to fly deceptive routes to attempt to outwit the guns. The use of the barrages was very effective and caused the attacking bombers to have problems hitting targets. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Friday, March 16, 2018
Air attacks on Tobruk and the anti-aircraft defenses
Brigadier Slater commanded the 5th Anti-Aircraft Brigade at Tobruk during the siege. The harbor and base were priorities for anti-aircraft defense. This was a constant struggle as the enemy continued to evolve their operations. The units involved were typically below strength and guns were in constant need of repair. That meant that they needed spare parts for the guns, as well as spare guns. They also relied on laborers to help with digging and the like. The enemy targeted guns, so that they would repair.
Early in the siege, the enemy staged daylight air attacks, often with dive bombers. As the defense capabilities improved against dive bombers, the enemy switched more to night bombing attacks. The air attacks were constant, with only one day during the 9th Australian Division's time at Tobruk when there were no air raids. All these dates are from 1941.
Dive bombing Total Night Raids Total Bombing Day Reconnaissance
Daylight raids Raids
April 10-30 21 41 11 73 27
May 17 60 22 99 58
June 6 58 76 140 39
July 4 91 43 138 46
August 11 55 77 143 30
The defenders took a while and had to experiment to find tactics to deal with dive bombers. The enemy made a first heavy dive bombing attack on 14 April 1941. The guns fired a fixed barrage to explode at 3,000 feet. They found that some aircraft had gotten in before the barrage was fired. to counter that danger, they set up an observation post on the escarpment where they could look down on the harbor. There were problems found with inadequate depth to the barrage. The guns often fired too soon in the attack. The barrage had to spread from 3,000 to 6,000 feet and was fired to swing across the harbor area. They had four Italian 102mm anti-aircraft guns which were repaired and employed. By August, they had found three more of the Italian guns and added them to the defense. The static 40mm guns were used to engage aircraft that survived the barrage. The 12 40mm static guns were manned by the 40th Light Anti-Aircraft Battery.
The defenses added three 20-barrel parachute rocket launchers provided by the navy. The rockets had parachutes and trailed long wires. Small bombs were attached to the end of the wires. They were first used on 18 August against a dive bombing attack. They successfully disrupted the attack.
The enemy resorted to attacking the anti-aircraft gun positions. They damaged six guns that were all repaired. The gunners quickly learned that they were safest by staying in action and shooting at the attacking aircraft. That was a lesson learned in May and June 1941. Dive bombers were used against the guns. They started on 10 April and ended on 1 September 1941. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Early in the siege, the enemy staged daylight air attacks, often with dive bombers. As the defense capabilities improved against dive bombers, the enemy switched more to night bombing attacks. The air attacks were constant, with only one day during the 9th Australian Division's time at Tobruk when there were no air raids. All these dates are from 1941.
Dive bombing Total Night Raids Total Bombing Day Reconnaissance
Daylight raids Raids
April 10-30 21 41 11 73 27
May 17 60 22 99 58
June 6 58 76 140 39
July 4 91 43 138 46
August 11 55 77 143 30
The defenders took a while and had to experiment to find tactics to deal with dive bombers. The enemy made a first heavy dive bombing attack on 14 April 1941. The guns fired a fixed barrage to explode at 3,000 feet. They found that some aircraft had gotten in before the barrage was fired. to counter that danger, they set up an observation post on the escarpment where they could look down on the harbor. There were problems found with inadequate depth to the barrage. The guns often fired too soon in the attack. The barrage had to spread from 3,000 to 6,000 feet and was fired to swing across the harbor area. They had four Italian 102mm anti-aircraft guns which were repaired and employed. By August, they had found three more of the Italian guns and added them to the defense. The static 40mm guns were used to engage aircraft that survived the barrage. The 12 40mm static guns were manned by the 40th Light Anti-Aircraft Battery.
The defenses added three 20-barrel parachute rocket launchers provided by the navy. The rockets had parachutes and trailed long wires. Small bombs were attached to the end of the wires. They were first used on 18 August against a dive bombing attack. They successfully disrupted the attack.
The enemy resorted to attacking the anti-aircraft gun positions. They damaged six guns that were all repaired. The gunners quickly learned that they were safest by staying in action and shooting at the attacking aircraft. That was a lesson learned in May and June 1941. Dive bombers were used against the guns. They started on 10 April and ended on 1 September 1941. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Wednesday, March 14, 2018
Aggressive patroling near Tobruk from April to October 1941
Aggressive patroling, mostly at night, was a feature of the Tobruk defense from April 1941 up until the Australians had left in late October 1941. Much of the work was done by Australians from the 9th Australian Division, but there were others as well. They included the Indians of the 18th Cavalry and the men of the King's Dragoon Guards. In mid-April, a German soldier's diary spoke of the stress and effect of attacks on the motorized infantry by night. They had taken losses and the attacks had a negative effect on morale. For example, in one night, six officers and 57 other men were captured.
Some thirteen Australian battalions were involved in defending Tobruk. They took losses as killed, wounded, and as prisoners. The German success in breaking into the perimeter resulted in 259 men being captured then, and later from the 2/24th Battalion of the 26th Brigade. The 2/23rd Battalion lost as many as 79 men as prisoners. No other battalions lost prisoners as many as those. The 2/9th Battalion had suffered 205 men wounded. Both the 2/23rd and 2/24th Battalions had many men killed. The 2/23rd Battalion had 78 men killed while the 2/24th Battalion had 70 men killed.
In the vicinity of the Salient, when the enemy had penetrated the perimeter in a surprise attack, the area became one of the most dangerous areas of the fortress. Near the wire there was a chalk mound that they named Forbes Mound. In one incident on the night of 24-25 July 1941, six men were going after German machine gun and mortar crews. The Germans were moving in a truck to fight another Australian patrol. The Australians had been surprised to find German sangers close to the wire.
During the summer of 1941, there were no photographs from the air and the artillery depended on information gathered by patrols operating at night in enemy territory. There was a period when some successful patrols were made using carriers. In early May, a daylight raid was made with carriers. Despite being lightly armored, they were able to attack a working party and fight tanks and guns. They succeeded in returning without loss.
Because of the inshore squadron operations by the navy and the success of the anti-aircraft gunners, Tobruk was kept adequately supplied, so that there were not any extreme shortages of supplies or food. The anti-aircraft gunners had to deal with four types of air attacks. They would be hit by daytime dive bombing attacks against the harbor and installations. There were also daylight level-bombing attacks from higher altitude. The enemy would also bomb at night and would drop mines at night. Early in the siege, they would have large dive bombing raids. As the anti-aircraft defenses improved, the enemy moved to mostly night bombing raids.
Early in the defense of Tobruk, there were 16 mobile 3.7in anti-aircraft guns actually in use. There were other guns not yet available for use. There were also 40mm and 20mm Breda guns in use. They had as many as 42 of the captured Italian Breda guns. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Some thirteen Australian battalions were involved in defending Tobruk. They took losses as killed, wounded, and as prisoners. The German success in breaking into the perimeter resulted in 259 men being captured then, and later from the 2/24th Battalion of the 26th Brigade. The 2/23rd Battalion lost as many as 79 men as prisoners. No other battalions lost prisoners as many as those. The 2/9th Battalion had suffered 205 men wounded. Both the 2/23rd and 2/24th Battalions had many men killed. The 2/23rd Battalion had 78 men killed while the 2/24th Battalion had 70 men killed.
In the vicinity of the Salient, when the enemy had penetrated the perimeter in a surprise attack, the area became one of the most dangerous areas of the fortress. Near the wire there was a chalk mound that they named Forbes Mound. In one incident on the night of 24-25 July 1941, six men were going after German machine gun and mortar crews. The Germans were moving in a truck to fight another Australian patrol. The Australians had been surprised to find German sangers close to the wire.
During the summer of 1941, there were no photographs from the air and the artillery depended on information gathered by patrols operating at night in enemy territory. There was a period when some successful patrols were made using carriers. In early May, a daylight raid was made with carriers. Despite being lightly armored, they were able to attack a working party and fight tanks and guns. They succeeded in returning without loss.
Because of the inshore squadron operations by the navy and the success of the anti-aircraft gunners, Tobruk was kept adequately supplied, so that there were not any extreme shortages of supplies or food. The anti-aircraft gunners had to deal with four types of air attacks. They would be hit by daytime dive bombing attacks against the harbor and installations. There were also daylight level-bombing attacks from higher altitude. The enemy would also bomb at night and would drop mines at night. Early in the siege, they would have large dive bombing raids. As the anti-aircraft defenses improved, the enemy moved to mostly night bombing raids.
Early in the defense of Tobruk, there were 16 mobile 3.7in anti-aircraft guns actually in use. There were other guns not yet available for use. There were also 40mm and 20mm Breda guns in use. They had as many as 42 of the captured Italian Breda guns. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Friday, March 09, 2018
A retrospective of the 9th Australian Division after their departure from Tobruk in October 1941
The British politicians, particularly the prime minister, were very angry about the Australian government's insistence on withdrawing the 9th Australian Division. To rub salt in the wound, the fast minelayer Latona was sunk and the destroyer Hero was damaged in an attempt to bring out the last 1200 Australians from Tobruk. They were very fortunate that the Germans did not start aggressively bombing the shipping earlier, because the situation would have turned out much worse. The Australian government insisted that the last group of men be withdrawn at the next moonless opportunity.
The defense of Tobruk certainly was made possible by the efforts of the field artillery units, which were largely British. The anti-aircraft gunners were another important factor in the successful defense force. The anti-aircraft units were often the targets of German air attacks. General Auchinleck praised the defenders of Tobruk for their efforts in holding a strong enemy force in place away from the Libyan-Egyptian frontier. The enemy had committed four Italian divisions and three German motor battalions to besieging the fortress of Tobruk. They had held the place from sometime in April until November 1941 when the enemy was beaten and pushed back to the border between Tripolitania and Cyrenaica.
General Morshead often asked more of his men than was possible. His insistence on aggressive patrolling and never allowing the enemy to take and hold territory was an important feature. That was not always possible, as the capture of the Salient showed, but it was still a guiding principle. The mutual respect between the defending units showed a recognition of the roles played by the various players.
There were two factors that caused the Australian demand for the withdrawal of their division. One was the hidden agenda behind General Blamey's manipulation of his government to cause the withdrawal. He was waging a battle against his personal rival in the Australian army, General Lavarack, who was more qualified than General Blamey. General Blamey spent part of the time keeping General Lavarack from gaining more prestige and power than he had, and also did at times promote General Lavarack, such as recommending his appointment as corps commander in Syria and Lebanon.
The other issue was the political turmoil in Australia, that cause some rapid changes. There were three prime ministers in 1941, the last of which was the Labour Party leader, John Curtin. The misadventures of Winston Churchill must have had an influence in Australia, you have to expect. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
The defense of Tobruk certainly was made possible by the efforts of the field artillery units, which were largely British. The anti-aircraft gunners were another important factor in the successful defense force. The anti-aircraft units were often the targets of German air attacks. General Auchinleck praised the defenders of Tobruk for their efforts in holding a strong enemy force in place away from the Libyan-Egyptian frontier. The enemy had committed four Italian divisions and three German motor battalions to besieging the fortress of Tobruk. They had held the place from sometime in April until November 1941 when the enemy was beaten and pushed back to the border between Tripolitania and Cyrenaica.
General Morshead often asked more of his men than was possible. His insistence on aggressive patrolling and never allowing the enemy to take and hold territory was an important feature. That was not always possible, as the capture of the Salient showed, but it was still a guiding principle. The mutual respect between the defending units showed a recognition of the roles played by the various players.
There were two factors that caused the Australian demand for the withdrawal of their division. One was the hidden agenda behind General Blamey's manipulation of his government to cause the withdrawal. He was waging a battle against his personal rival in the Australian army, General Lavarack, who was more qualified than General Blamey. General Blamey spent part of the time keeping General Lavarack from gaining more prestige and power than he had, and also did at times promote General Lavarack, such as recommending his appointment as corps commander in Syria and Lebanon.
The other issue was the political turmoil in Australia, that cause some rapid changes. There were three prime ministers in 1941, the last of which was the Labour Party leader, John Curtin. The misadventures of Winston Churchill must have had an influence in Australia, you have to expect. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Wednesday, March 07, 2018
FInal relief of the 9th Australian Division in October 1941
The relief of Australian units by British units was well-planned. Relief convoys used one minelayer and three destroyers. The final relief started on 12-13 October 1941. An arriving unit was generally given a day before the unit that was being replaced left Tobruk. That was to give the newly arrived men time for a transition. Also, that allowed for no reduction in strength defending the fortress of Tobruk.Convoys generally brought in one thousand men and removed slightly less than that number. Men of the 26th Brigade Group were the first to leave.
General Scobie became the new fortress commander, taking over from General Morshead. General Scobie arrived at Tobruk on the night of 20-21 October. General Morshead introduced General Scobie at all the brigade headquarters. One of the first changes was that the division reserve was moved from the 26th Australian Brigade to the 23rd British Brigade. The next move was for the 23rd Brigade to replace the 20th Australian Brigade in the south of Tobruk. General Scobie formally took over as commander at 5pm on 22 October. General Morshead then bade farewell to units that were to stay, and then ate dinner with the naval staff. He then left Tobruk on HMS Endeavor. On the 22nd, more of the 20th Australian Brigade was removed from Tobruk. The 23rd British Brigade assumed the duty of protecting the Southern Sector on 23 October from the 20th Australian Brigade. The Australians moved into division reserve. A feature of the relief process is that the Australian units passed all their equipment to the arriving units. On the night of 24-25 October, the 14th British Brigade took command of the division reserve. Before night fell, an air attack by dive bombers hit the harbor.
During the relief process the enemy had fired artillery against the harbor. There was still no indication that the enemy realized that the relief was proceeding. One hazard that was not immediately recognized was that German submarines had arrived in the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic. The first ships sunk were "A-Lighters". The submarines were assigned to attack ships supplying Tobruk.
The British gunboat Gnat was able to hit the guns that fired on the harbor at Tobruk. The relief convoy cruiser escorts, the Ajax, Hobart, and Galatea were alsos able to fire at the guns. The Gnat was torpedoed on 21 October. The ship was not sunk, but was stopped. The destroyer Griffin was able to tow the Gnat to Alexandria. One final mishap was that the minelayer Latona was bombed and eventually sunk. That ended the Australian relief, because they had reached the end of the moonless period. The remaining Australians were stuck at Tobruk. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
General Scobie became the new fortress commander, taking over from General Morshead. General Scobie arrived at Tobruk on the night of 20-21 October. General Morshead introduced General Scobie at all the brigade headquarters. One of the first changes was that the division reserve was moved from the 26th Australian Brigade to the 23rd British Brigade. The next move was for the 23rd Brigade to replace the 20th Australian Brigade in the south of Tobruk. General Scobie formally took over as commander at 5pm on 22 October. General Morshead then bade farewell to units that were to stay, and then ate dinner with the naval staff. He then left Tobruk on HMS Endeavor. On the 22nd, more of the 20th Australian Brigade was removed from Tobruk. The 23rd British Brigade assumed the duty of protecting the Southern Sector on 23 October from the 20th Australian Brigade. The Australians moved into division reserve. A feature of the relief process is that the Australian units passed all their equipment to the arriving units. On the night of 24-25 October, the 14th British Brigade took command of the division reserve. Before night fell, an air attack by dive bombers hit the harbor.
During the relief process the enemy had fired artillery against the harbor. There was still no indication that the enemy realized that the relief was proceeding. One hazard that was not immediately recognized was that German submarines had arrived in the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic. The first ships sunk were "A-Lighters". The submarines were assigned to attack ships supplying Tobruk.
The British gunboat Gnat was able to hit the guns that fired on the harbor at Tobruk. The relief convoy cruiser escorts, the Ajax, Hobart, and Galatea were alsos able to fire at the guns. The Gnat was torpedoed on 21 October. The ship was not sunk, but was stopped. The destroyer Griffin was able to tow the Gnat to Alexandria. One final mishap was that the minelayer Latona was bombed and eventually sunk. That ended the Australian relief, because they had reached the end of the moonless period. The remaining Australians were stuck at Tobruk. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Friday, March 02, 2018
The battle for the outposts at Tobruk, from 12 October 1941
Sunrise on 12 October 1941 showed some 19 German tanks and about six vehicles facing the 2/17th Battalion area. Perhaps most were near Plonk, which the Germans had reoccupied since it had been left vacant. The Australians could discern a line of sangars on both sides of Plonk. Workers could be seen during the day extending this new defensive line. The enemy had setup wire around Plonk by mid-morning on the 12th. Later in the afternoon showed that the enemy had laid more wire from Plonk out to the sangar line.
After these developments, the decision was made to provide tanks for Cooma for the night hours. They would drive through the perimeter at dusk and return there by dawn. During the day, troops of infantry tanks would be kept available to drive to Cooma, if needed. The 4th RTR initially provided these tanks, and then for two days, the 7th RTR provided the tanks.
In the evening, the Australians could see enemy tanks near Plonk and Cooma. Several tanks drove near the perimeter wire. The Australians sent out "tank hunting patrols", but they did not make contact with the enemy. The scheduled British tank presence set out at 1am. They did not see any enemy tanks, but they fired on the enemy working parties. The enemy had about twenty anti-tank guns set up and they fired at the British tanks. To the Australians within the Tobruk perimeter, there seemed to be a tank battle happening, but it was just the anti-tank gun fire and the tanks shooting. The Australians moved back into the Cooma outpost and went to work on strengthening the defensive positions.
After the last battle over Plonk, the enemy was content to work on extending their defenses. The Australians continued to occupy Cooma and the arrangements for tanks were continued while the Australians were still in the southern sector. Their remaining time was limited, because they were to be withdrawn while more units were carried in to replace them. The enemy now had some 100 guns available. The largest were the 210mm howitzers, one battery of 149/35 guns, and another battery thought to be 155mm. The enemy was thought to have 10 field batteries, 12 medium batteries. and the three heavy batteries. The enemy strength in the south was so dominating that the options for raiding at night were greatly reduced. In other sectors, the Australians were still strong enough to carry out aggressive patrolling. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
After these developments, the decision was made to provide tanks for Cooma for the night hours. They would drive through the perimeter at dusk and return there by dawn. During the day, troops of infantry tanks would be kept available to drive to Cooma, if needed. The 4th RTR initially provided these tanks, and then for two days, the 7th RTR provided the tanks.
In the evening, the Australians could see enemy tanks near Plonk and Cooma. Several tanks drove near the perimeter wire. The Australians sent out "tank hunting patrols", but they did not make contact with the enemy. The scheduled British tank presence set out at 1am. They did not see any enemy tanks, but they fired on the enemy working parties. The enemy had about twenty anti-tank guns set up and they fired at the British tanks. To the Australians within the Tobruk perimeter, there seemed to be a tank battle happening, but it was just the anti-tank gun fire and the tanks shooting. The Australians moved back into the Cooma outpost and went to work on strengthening the defensive positions.
After the last battle over Plonk, the enemy was content to work on extending their defenses. The Australians continued to occupy Cooma and the arrangements for tanks were continued while the Australians were still in the southern sector. Their remaining time was limited, because they were to be withdrawn while more units were carried in to replace them. The enemy now had some 100 guns available. The largest were the 210mm howitzers, one battery of 149/35 guns, and another battery thought to be 155mm. The enemy was thought to have 10 field batteries, 12 medium batteries. and the three heavy batteries. The enemy strength in the south was so dominating that the options for raiding at night were greatly reduced. In other sectors, the Australians were still strong enough to carry out aggressive patrolling. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Thursday, March 01, 2018
A night tank battle on 11-12 October 1941 near the Plonk outpost
The attack on the Plonk outpost was late to start, partly to the late arrival of the infantry tanks. The supporting artillery barrage was repeated for the real attack. The attack on Plonk was set to launch about 15 minutes after midnight on 12 October 1941. They could hear digging and voices at Plonk before the barrage started. Enemy artillery responded to the British artillery fire. This time, the Matilda tanks were moving up to attack Plonk. The Australian infantry patrol moved closer to Plonk as all this happened. A little before 1am, the infantry tanks commenced firing at enemy tanks that were visible. The range was very short, about 100 yards. There were the tank guns firing as well as the tank machine guns. The enemy was described as firing their tank guns wildly, and not well-aimed. The British tanks were able to move towards the objective. The German tanks retreated in front of them. The tank firing was across the infantry path and kept them from moving into Plonk.
They could see German tanks advancing from the west, but were driven back by the British tank gun fire. The Australian infantry patrol did not enter Plonk, as there was too much risk to the men from occupying Plonk.The Australians did fire their "Very light signal" to communicate that they had achieved their desired objective. That triggered the enemy to open artillery fire on Plonk, as the expected that the signal meant that Plonk had been occupied. By 1:25am, the enemy troops had pulled out of Plonk. Firing stopped after they left. After a brief respite, the enemy resumed firing at Plonk. An extraordinary barrage, the largest yet seen at Tobruk, descended on Plonk. While the firing continued, more enemy tanks drove towards Plonk, but the British tanks in Plonk fired at the enemy tanks, causing them to pull back.
The Australian patrol that had been sent to Plonk pulled back after sending one small group back with a wounded man. The patrol went looking for the machine gun that had fired on them earlier, but didn't find it. The patrol commander then sent the other men back, but he stayed until 2am, when he fired the Very light signal. After he gave the signal, the enemy started another artillery barrage on Plonk.
While Plonk wss receiving enemy artillery fire, the men working on creating an outpost at Cooma had been busy. The British tanks had driven on to Cooma from Plonk. They had fired on some enemy tanks that had gotten close, but they eventually drove back to the perimeter and reentered Tobruk.The 32nd Army Tank Brigade commander had ordered his tanks back to Cooma, but while the sky was getting lighter, the tanks had not reached the gap in the perimeter. The Australian 20th Brigade commander had suggested that the tanks return to the "forward assembly area". This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
They could see German tanks advancing from the west, but were driven back by the British tank gun fire. The Australian infantry patrol did not enter Plonk, as there was too much risk to the men from occupying Plonk.The Australians did fire their "Very light signal" to communicate that they had achieved their desired objective. That triggered the enemy to open artillery fire on Plonk, as the expected that the signal meant that Plonk had been occupied. By 1:25am, the enemy troops had pulled out of Plonk. Firing stopped after they left. After a brief respite, the enemy resumed firing at Plonk. An extraordinary barrage, the largest yet seen at Tobruk, descended on Plonk. While the firing continued, more enemy tanks drove towards Plonk, but the British tanks in Plonk fired at the enemy tanks, causing them to pull back.
The Australian patrol that had been sent to Plonk pulled back after sending one small group back with a wounded man. The patrol went looking for the machine gun that had fired on them earlier, but didn't find it. The patrol commander then sent the other men back, but he stayed until 2am, when he fired the Very light signal. After he gave the signal, the enemy started another artillery barrage on Plonk.
While Plonk wss receiving enemy artillery fire, the men working on creating an outpost at Cooma had been busy. The British tanks had driven on to Cooma from Plonk. They had fired on some enemy tanks that had gotten close, but they eventually drove back to the perimeter and reentered Tobruk.The 32nd Army Tank Brigade commander had ordered his tanks back to Cooma, but while the sky was getting lighter, the tanks had not reached the gap in the perimeter. The Australian 20th Brigade commander had suggested that the tanks return to the "forward assembly area". This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Wednesday, February 21, 2018
More action near the 2/17th Battalion from 11th to 12th October 1941 at Tobruk
Early on 11 October 1941, Tobruk artillery fired on the outpost Plonk that had been occupied by enemy troops. The Australians could hear "yelling and screaming" after the artillery fire on Plonk. They heard tools tossed into trucks and then the trucks drove off. Again, at 6am, Tobruk artillery fired on Plonk. A patrol investigated Plonk after that and saw men walking about the area. They drew more artillery and machine gun fire. About this time, the enemy artillery fired on the 2/17th Battalion defenses, as was usually the case. Right before 8am, the Australians observed more men at Plonk and fired on them. The enemy responded with more artillery fire on the Australians. Between haze and dust, the Australians could no longer see Plonk.
Between 8:30am and 9am, increasing numbers of tanks were seen near the 2/17th Battalion. The battalion positions were machine-gunned. They were not used to having so much activity near them. They found that the enemy troops had moved back into the Tugun outpost. The Australians were concerned that the enemy might make a major attack on the 2/17th Battalion front. A practice attack near Carmusa by 2/15th Battalion soldiers and tanks from the 32nd Army Tank Brigade was cancelled due to the enemy activity. All of the 20th Brigade was kept at the ready, rather than proceeding with training. By 9:45am, they saw twelve enemy tanks "hull-down" near Plonk. Despite the activity, no attack was launched by the enemy.
By the next night, the 11-12 October 1941, General Morshead ordered the 20th Brigade to attack and retaked Plonk. They would no use Plonk but would create a new outpost to be called Cooma. The plan was to keep the enemy from advancing their line towards the Australians. The infantry directly involved would be from the 2/17th Battalion with support from the 4th RTR in the form of one squadron. The 2/17th Battalion would have one company of the 2/13th Battalion in reserve. The attack would have the 107th RHA firing a bombardment to soften up the enemy. If possible, the 1st RHA would fire smoke in the area of the enemy minefield.
Two platoons from the 2/17th Battalion made the attack. They expected to see tanks coming up in support, but the plan for the tanks was to move at 5 mph with a mile between tanks. That meant that they were not immediately available. At the time of the infantry attack, the tanks were just at the perimeter wire. The enemy artillery fire was so heavy, that two other Australian battalions, the 2/23rd and 2/24th were readied for use. The attacking platoons would then attack without the tanks. After some fits and starts, the new plan was to attack at 12:15am. The artillery would fire in support, again. The tanks that were still running would join in the attack. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
Between 8:30am and 9am, increasing numbers of tanks were seen near the 2/17th Battalion. The battalion positions were machine-gunned. They were not used to having so much activity near them. They found that the enemy troops had moved back into the Tugun outpost. The Australians were concerned that the enemy might make a major attack on the 2/17th Battalion front. A practice attack near Carmusa by 2/15th Battalion soldiers and tanks from the 32nd Army Tank Brigade was cancelled due to the enemy activity. All of the 20th Brigade was kept at the ready, rather than proceeding with training. By 9:45am, they saw twelve enemy tanks "hull-down" near Plonk. Despite the activity, no attack was launched by the enemy.
By the next night, the 11-12 October 1941, General Morshead ordered the 20th Brigade to attack and retaked Plonk. They would no use Plonk but would create a new outpost to be called Cooma. The plan was to keep the enemy from advancing their line towards the Australians. The infantry directly involved would be from the 2/17th Battalion with support from the 4th RTR in the form of one squadron. The 2/17th Battalion would have one company of the 2/13th Battalion in reserve. The attack would have the 107th RHA firing a bombardment to soften up the enemy. If possible, the 1st RHA would fire smoke in the area of the enemy minefield.
Two platoons from the 2/17th Battalion made the attack. They expected to see tanks coming up in support, but the plan for the tanks was to move at 5 mph with a mile between tanks. That meant that they were not immediately available. At the time of the infantry attack, the tanks were just at the perimeter wire. The enemy artillery fire was so heavy, that two other Australian battalions, the 2/23rd and 2/24th were readied for use. The attacking platoons would then attack without the tanks. After some fits and starts, the new plan was to attack at 12:15am. The artillery would fire in support, again. The tanks that were still running would join in the attack. This is based on the account in Vol.III of the Australian Official History.
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